In everyday disagreements, if you follow them far enough, the two parties tend to be disagreeing about how to describe or evaluate something. Take, for instance, this line from Shakespeare’s King Lear: a remark Lear himself makes, after his daughter Cordelia refuses to flatter him to win a share of his kingdom.
Let pride, which she calls plainness, marry her. (1.1.129)
In one line, Lear cuts to the heart of their disagreement. What Cordelia judges as straightforward honesty (and therefore, as daughter, the right thing to do), Lear judges as vain insolence (and therefore, as king, intolerable). The difference between the evaluations reveals the basis for their dispute.
The figure which Lear uses to articulate this disagreement – “what she calls ‘A’ is actually ‘B’” – was known to many ancient rhetoricians as paradiastole.[1] In Ancient Greek, παρα- indicates comparison or juxtaposition, διαστολή indicates separation or distinction, hence παραδιαστολή is the comparison of what has been separated: the two differing descriptions of one object. Today, it is often glossed as ‘rhetorical redescription’, but that loses something of both the Greek term and the figure itself. Lear does not simply engage in redescription. He places his own evaluation alongside his opponent’s.
In Ancient Greek and Roman accounts of civil conflict – particularly those written by historians – we often find examples of paradiastole. Sometimes, the author uses paradiastole in their narrative voice, as in Thucydides’ famous account of wartime stasis:
And they exchanged the customary evaluations of the deeds in names when making judgments. Reckless daring was deemed loyal courage; forward-thinking hesitation, good-looking cowardice; good sense itself, a veil for unmanliness, and intelligence about everything, inactivity in everything; frenetic sharpness was held to be part of manliness; scheming for safety, a good-sounding reason for backing down. (3.82.4)
On other occasions, the author has a speaker use paradiastole, as in the speech Sallust gives Cato the Younger in the Bellum Catilinae:
In this situation, does someone mention ‘mercy’ and ‘compassion’ to me? By now we have certainly long lost the true names of things. It is because giving away others’ goods is called ‘generosity’, daring to do bad deeds is called ‘courage’, that the republic has been placed in the utmost danger. (52.11)
Why do these ancient authors repeatedly turn to paradiastole when analyzing civil conflict? And what do such passages tell us about the nature of civil conflict itself?
In my book, Language and Civil Conflict in the Greco-Roman Tradition, I argue that ancient authors such as Thucydides and Sallust saw linguistic changes as a central feature of stasis.[2] These authors were very attentive – perhaps more attentive than we are – to the ways that practices of speaking and listening differ in times of conflict to times of peace; and they saw these shifts as essential for understanding how stasis begins, escalates, and can be resolved. This idea was not limited to ancient historiography: Plato, for example, has much to say about it. Nor was it a distinctively Greek or Roman idea: we find similar ideas in Ancient Chinese philosophy, for instance, as I discuss in the prologue of my book. But it is an idea which has the capacity to reshape the way that we view civil conflicts – past and present.

Paradiastole features extensively in these Ancient Greek and Roman accounts of stasis because it is a neat way of encapsulating such linguistic conflict. It formally resembles the kind of opposition it describes, and it forces the reader to decide which evaluation – if either – they will endorse. More specifically, paradiastole offers a window into the conflicts of value which these Ancient Greek and Roman authors thought underpinned stasis. That is what makes it central to their analyses; and that is why studying these passages closely can tell us a great deal about their works as a whole.
Take the passage from Thucydides above. In the first part of the first chapter of my book, I argue that what Thucydides identifies here is a difference between the values of wartime and peacetime.[3] In each pair, the first evaluation is how someone in peacetime would judge the action; the second evaluation is how someone in wartime would do so. The tragedy of wartime stasis, for Thucydides, is that wartime evaluations enter the polis, which ought to be a sphere of peace. In the rest of the chapter, I go on to show how Thucydides sees the war disrupting practices of speaking and listening across his text, most notably in the Melian Dialogue. But I also argue that Thucydides connects his account with the stasis that struck Athens after the war, in 404 BCE, when the boundaries of war and peace were once again blurred; and moreover, that Thucydides – perhaps surprisingly – suggests his own text offers the means of distinguishing war from peace and correcting the war’s effects on language. That is why he includes another example of paradiastole in his ‘second preface’ (clearly written after the war had finished), using very similar language to the earlier passage, which stresses his capacity to correctly distinguish between peace and war – the two categories that, in the earlier passage, had become confused:
And if anyone does not think it right to deem the truce in the middle as a period of war, they will not have judged correctly. Let them look at the actions as they are clearly set out, and they will find it should not be judged as peace… (5.26.2)
So, Thucydides’ use of paradiastole starts as a window into civil conflict; but it also turns out to be a window into the historian’s context and craft.

In chapters two, three, and four, I turn to Plato, Sallust, and Tacitus. (There is also a brief interlude between chapters two and three, discussing Aristotle’s treatment of paradiastole.) In their treatments of language change and stasis, each of these later authors engages with those that went before, creating the ‘tradition’ to which the title of my book refers; but they also respond to their own, specific contexts. That can lead to a productive tension in their accounts between the general and the particular: they treat both stasis as a recurring phenomenon – as Thucydides already anticipates in 3.82.2 – and as a contemporary threat.
Take the passage from Sallust’s Bellum Catilinae above. In form, this passage resembles Thucydides’ earlier treatment, as various commentators have explored.[4] There are some subtle differences: it is framed in terms of conceptual loss, truth versus falsehood, first-person versus third-person, cause rather than symptom of stasis. Those are, I argue, distinctively Sallustian touches. As in so much of the Bellum Catilinae, a timeless Thucydidean model is being corrected in a Roman context. But in that context, this passage speaks more with Ciceronian texts from the time of the Catilinarian Conspiracy. Consider the first two terms, mansuetudo (‘gentleness’) and misericordia (‘mercy’): a memorably alliterative pair. In 63–62 BCE, Cicero started using the same pairing: at the end of Pro Murena, he appeals to the jury’s gentleness and mercy (90: mansuetudine et misericordia vestra), while in the last sentence of Pro Sulla, he again refers to the gentleness and mercy that he and the jurors share (93: mansuetudine et misericordia nostra), encouraging them to acquit Publius Cornelius Sulla of complicity in the Catilinarian Conspiracy. Now, in my chapter on Sallust, I argue that Sallust’s use of alliterative pairs (‘binary phrases’) is often politically charged. But here, Cato’s critique seems squarely focused on Cicero. We find the same thing in the next phrase, when Cato says that giving away others’ goods is called ‘generosity’ (bona aliena largiri liberalitas… vocatur). In Pro Murena, while attacking the same Cato for an over-severe attitude towards bribery (the charge on which Murena was being tried), Cicero sums up his point by arguing that the candidates ought not to be banned from kindness, which represents generosity more than largess (77: quae liberalitatem magis significat quam largitionem). Quintilian would regard Cicero as a master exponent of rhetorical redescription (Inst. 8.4.1–2). Here, Sallust’s passage is virtually commentary – just as it is for Thucydides 3.82.4.
Although they are often found in texts we tend to think of as history, passages such as these are not historical in the conventional sense. They are better understood as political theory – itself of quite a distinctive kind. They model a philologically attentive form of political theory, listening carefully to the implications of the words each side uses. They also model a dialogic form of political theory, where each side’s worldviews are set alongside each other. That aspect of paradiastole becomes especially clear when Tacitus uses it – often outside the context of stasis – to juxtapose different perspectives on Roman imperialism. Sometimes, he does so by using figures who are spatially distant from the Roman Empire, such as Calgacus in the Agricola:
They give the false name of ‘empire’ to stealing, slaughter, and plunder, and where they make a wilderness, they give it the false name of ‘peace’. (30.5)
Other times, he does so by contrasting evaluations from distant time, as in Maternus’ speech in the Dialogus:
But great and famous eloquence is the daughter of licence, which the stupid used to call ‘liberty’: it is a friend of sedition, and it is a bait to an unbridled people. (40.2)
To see both ways of evaluating empire side-by-side, Tacitus’ reader must listen for it at the edges of known space and remembered time. Paradiastole is their tool for doing so.
But insofar as such passages are political theory, that is not their most striking aspect. My book argues that the central feature of these ancient treatments of language and civil conflict is that they approach the subject as moral realists: they insist that we can make objective value judgments, even in extreme conflict. In contrast to modern philosophers who have used paradiastole in a sceptical fashion – most famously Nietzsche[5] – these ancient writers use it in an attempt to resolve evaluative disagreement, often with a view to resolving civil conflict itself. For authors such as Plato, this is unsurprising. But for authors such as Thucydides, Sallust, and Tacitus, it shows us something else which is important about their craft. For these writers, it is precisely in the context of stasis, where ideological conflict is at its most extreme, that we see the importance of being able to make objective, moral judgments – to determine whether an act is, say, ‘pride’ or ‘plainness’ – and of being able to do so from a neutral, impartial standpoint. And in this context, these detailed examples of paradiastole become the setting in which these authors address a broader question: can we identify timeless values in times of conflict?
Many of us increasingly feel we have no way of talking with our political opponents, no common language, no constructive dialogue. Many of us despair of the difficulty in agreeing on even the simplest moral evaluations. These ancient treatments of language and civil conflict show us that these experiences are not new. They are intrinsic features of stasis in all its forms. But more than that, these ancient accounts show us attempts to meet such challenges head-on. It is for us to determine how plausible their attempts are.
References
[1] Quentin Skinner’s discussions of paradiastole, focusing on its rhetorical uses and its early-modern reception, have been particularly influential: see esp. Quentin Skinner, Reason and Rhetoric in the Philosophy of Hobbes (Cambridge, 1996), ch. 4, and Quentin Skinner, Visions of Politics: Hobbes and Civil Science (Cambridge, 2002), ch. 4.
[2] Daniel Sutton, Language and Civil Conflict in the Greco-Roman Tradition (Cambridge, 2026).
[3] Here I engage particularly with Colin Macleod, ‘Thucydides on faction (3.82–83)’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 25 (1979): 52–68; Nicole Loraux, ‘Thucydide et la sédition dans les mots’, Quaderni di Storia 23 (1986): 95–134; and Jonathan J. Price, Thucydides and Internal War (Cambridge, 2001), ch. 1. For a more recent discussion, cf. Simon Noriega-Olmos, ‘Valuation Drifts, Meaning Endures: Thucydides 3.82.4’, Classical Quarterly 72 (2022): 82–100.
[4] See recently Lydia Spielberg, ‘Language, Stasis and the Role of the Historian in Thucydides, Sallust and Tacitus’, American Journal of Philology 138 (2017): 331–373, and Andrew Feldherr, After the Past: Sallust on History and Writing History (2021, Chichester), ch. 1.
[5] See esp. Genealogy of Morals 1.14 – on which cf. recently Amia Srinivasan, ‘Genealogy, Epistemology and Worldmaking’, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 119 (2019): 127–156.
Credits
Featured image: The Exekias Amphora, The British Museum, 1836,0224.127 © The Trustees of the British Museum. Shared under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) licence.
Language and Civil Conflict in the Greco-Roman Tradition
Daniel Sutton
Cambridge University Press, 2026









